24/9/2008
The early versions of Windows were often thought of as just graphical user interfaces, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and used it for file system services.[3] However, even the earliest 16-bit Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions, notably, having their own executable file format and providing their own device drivers (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound) for applications. Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking. Finally, Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allowed it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources were swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce, and data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control, typically waiting for user input.[citation needed] 16-bit Windows versions include Windows 1.0 (1985), Windows 2.0 (1987) and its close relatives, Windows/286-Windows/386.
Hybrid 16/32-bit operating environments
Windows/386 introduced a 32-bit protected mode kernel and virtual machine monitor. For the duration of a Windows session, it created one or more virtual 8086 environments and provided device virtualization for the video card, keyboard, mouse, timer and interrupt controller inside each of them. The user-visible consequence was that it became possible to preemptively multitask multiple MS-DOS environments in separate windows, although graphical MS-DOS applications required full screen mode. Also, Windows applications were multi-tasked cooperatively inside one such virtual 8086 environment.
Windows 3.0 (1990) and Windows 3.1 (1992) improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) which allowed them to share arbitrary devices between multitasked DOS windows.[citation needed] Also, Windows applications could now run in protected mode (when Windows was running in Standard or 386 Enhanced Mode), which gave them access to several megabytes of memory and removed the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme. They still ran inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provided a degree of protection, and multi-tasked cooperatively. For Windows 3.0, Microsoft also rewrote critical operations from C into assembly, making this release faster and less memory-hungry than its predecessors.[citation needed]
Hybrid 16/32-bit operating systems
With the introduction of the 32-bit Windows for Workgroups 3.11, Windows was able to stop relying on DOS for file management.[citation needed] Leveraging this, Windows 95 introduced Long File Names, reducing the 8.3 filename DOS environment to the role of a boot loader. MS-DOS was now bundled with Windows; this notably made it (partially) aware of long file names when its utilities were run from within Windows. The most important novelty was the possibility of running 32-bit multi-threaded preemptively multitasked graphical programs. However, the necessity of keeping compatibility with 16-bit programs meant the GUI components were still 16-bit only and not fully reentrant, which resulted in reduced performance and stability.
There were three releases of Windows 95 (the first in 1995, then subsequent bug-fix versions in 1996 and 1997, only released to OEMs, which added extra features such as FAT32 and primitive USB support). Microsoft's next OS was Windows 98; there were two versions of this (the first in 1998 and the second, named "Windows 98 Second Edition", in 1999). In 2000, Microsoft released Windows Me (Me standing for Millennium Edition), which used the same core as Windows 98 but adopted some aspects of Windows 2000 and removed the option boot into DOS mode. It also added a new feature called System Restore, allowing the user to set the computer's settings back to an earlier date.
32-bit operating systems
The NT family of Windows systems was fashioned and marketed for higher reliability business use, and was unencumbered by any Microsoft DOS patrimony.[citation needed] The first release was Windows NT 3.1 (1993, numbered "3.1" to match the Windows version and to one-up OS/2 2.1,[citation needed] IBM's flagship OS co-developed by Microsoft and was Windows NT's main competitor at the time), which was followed by NT 3.5 (1994), NT 3.51 (1995), NT 4.0 (1996), and Windows 2000 (essentially NT 5.0). NT 4.0 was the first in this line to implement the "Windows 95" user interface (and the first to include Windows 95's built-in 32-bit runtimes). Microsoft then moved to combine their consumer and business operating systems. Windows XP, coming in both home and professional versions (and later niche market versions for tablet PCs and media centers) improved stability, user experience and backwards compatibility. Then, Windows Server 2003 brought Windows Server up to date with Windows XP. Since then, a new version, Windows Vista was released and Windows Server 2008, released on February 27, 2008, brings Windows Server up to date with Windows Vista.
Windows CE, Microsoft's offering in the mobile and embedded markets, is also a true 32-bit operating system that offers various services for all sub-operating workstations.
64-bit operating systems
Windows NT included support for several different platforms before the x86-based personal computer became dominant in the professional world. Versions of NT from 3.1 to 4.0 variously supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000, some of which were 64-bit processors, although the operating system treated them as 32-bit processors.
With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture, which is referred to as IA-64, Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it. Itanium versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 (32-bit) counterparts. On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and x64 versions of Windows Server 2003 to support the AMD64/Intel64 (or x64 in Microsoft terminology) architecture. Microsoft dropped support for the Itanium version of Windows XP in 2005. Windows Vista is the first end-user version of Windows that Microsoft has released simultaneously in 32-bit and x64 editions. Windows Vista does not support the Itanium architecture. The modern 64-bit Windows family comprises AMD64/Intel64 versions of Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008, in both Itanium and x64 editions.
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21/9/2008
There are eight different products in the current Photoshop family.
- Photoshop CS3
- Photoshop CS3 Extended
- Photoshop Elements 6.0 for Macintosh
- Photoshop Elements 6.0 for Windows
- Photoshop Elements 6.0 & Adobe Premiere Elements 4.0
- Photoshop Express beta
- Photoshop Lightroom 2
- Photoshop
Plugins
Photoshop functionality can be extended by add-on programs called Photoshop plugins which act like mini-editors that modify the image. The most common type are filter plugins that provide various image effects. They are located in the 'Filter' menu: pre-installed plugins come first, and third-party plugins are placed below the separator.
Trademark
Adobe discourages use of "Photoshop" as a verb, as in using photoshopping to refer to photo editing, to prevent its trademark from becoming a genericized trademark[13]. Nevertheless, photoshop is commonly used as a verb.[14] Also commonly shortened to simply "shopped", this has become the modern replacement of "airbrushed".
Consumer market
Photoshop Family of products logo
While Photoshop is the industry standard image editing program for professional raster graphics and other digital art, its relatively high suggested retail price has led to a number of competing graphics tools being made available at lower prices for the amateur market, such as GIMP. To compete in this market, and to counter unusually high rates of piracy of its high end products, the company introduced a consumer-oriented version of Photoshop as Adobe Photoshop Elements. A more user-friendly interface and new tools such as the "red-eye" reduction brush were aimed firmly at the more casual image editor, although many professional features were omitted. Removing CMYK functionality, for example, made Elements unsuitable for commercial prepress work.[15]
CS4 (Stonehenge)
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21/9/2008
Adobe Dreamweaver CS3 is available in the following languages: Arabic (Middle Eastern version), Persian, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Czech, Dutch, English, French, German, Hebrew (Middle Eastern version), Italian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish.
Adobe Dreamweaver Middle Eastern language versions available from WinSoft[2]. Specific Features for Arabic and Hebrew languages
Dreamweaver Middle Eastern versions allow typing Arabic, Persian or Hebrew text (written from right to left) within the code view. Whether the text is fully Middle Eastern (written from right to left) or includes both English and Middle Eastern text (written left to right and right to left), it will be displayed properly in the browser.
The Middle Eastern versions are also available for Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe InDesign, Adobe InCopy and for Adobe Creative Suite (Design Standard, Design Premium, Web Premium).
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20/9/2008
Adobe Director Default Projector Icon
The first Director release under the Adobe brand features DirectX 9 and Unicode support and extended 3D capabilities based on the NVIDIA PhysX engine, as well as bitmap filters, enhanced video, audio and image file formats support, and Adobe Flash CS3 integration. Shockwave Player 11 was also announced.
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20/9/2008
David Lovering (born December 6, 1961) is an American musician and magician. He is best known as the drummer for the alternative rock band Pixies, which he joined in 1985. After the band's breakup in 1993, Lovering drummed with several other acts, including The Martinis, Cracker, Nitzer Ebb and Tanya Donelly. He also pursued a magic career as The Scientific Phenomenalist, performing scientific and physics-based experiments on stage. When the Pixies reunited in 2004, Lovering returned as the band's drummer.
As a drummer Lovering was inspired by bands from a variety of genres, including
Rush and
Steely Dan. His musical style while in the Pixies was highly acclaimed by critics. Author Ben Sisario described him as the "great unacknowledged anchor" of the band, and stated that his unique influences gave "a precision and versatility essential to following
Black Francis's songwriting quirks"
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20/9/2008
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter; a modern thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than a thousand kilograms can produce an explosion comparable to the detonation of more than a billion kilograms of conventional high explosive.[1] Even small nuclear devices with yields equivalent to only a few thousand tons of TNT can devastate a city. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction, and their use and control has been a major aspect of international policy since their debut.
In the history of warfare, only two nuclear weapons have been detonated offensively; both by the United States of America during the closing days of World War II. The first was detonated on the morning of 6 August 1945, when the United States dropped a (uranium) gun-type device code-named "Little Boy" on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The second was detonated three days later when the United States dropped a plutonium implosion-type device code-named "Fat Man" on the city of Nagasaki, Japan. These bombings resulted in the immediate deaths of around 120,000 people from injuries sustained from the explosion and acute radiation sickness, and even more deaths over time from long-term effects of (ionising) radiation. The use of these weapons was and remains controversial. (See Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki for a full discussion.)
Since the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for testing purposes and demonstration purposes. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons — and that acknowledge possessing such weapons — are (chronologically) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, the People's Republic of China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. Israel is also widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, though it does not acknowledge having them. For more information on these states' nuclear programs, as well as other states that formerly possessed nuclear weapons or are suspected of seeking nuclear weapons, see List of states with nuclear weapons.
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17/9/2008 ·
Nuclear warfare strategy is a way for either fighting or avoiding a nuclear war. The policy of trying to ward off a potential attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike status (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability to completely destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists in nuclear-enabled countries worked out models of what sorts of policies could prevent one from ever being attacked by a nuclear weapon.
Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see below) allow for different types of nuclear strategy, primarily by making it difficult to defend against them and difficult to launch a pre-emptive strike against them. Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden, such as putting it on submarines or train cars whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track, and other times this means burying them in hardened bunkers. Other responses have included attempts to make it seem likely that the country could survive a nuclear attack, by using missile defense (to destroy the missiles before they land) or by means of civil defense (using early warning systems to evacuate citizens to a safe area before an attack). Note that weapons which are designed to threaten large populations or to generally deter attacks are known as strategic weapons. Weapons which are designed to actually be used on a battlefield in military situations are known as tactical weapons.
There are critics of the very idea of nuclear strategy for waging nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear war between two nuclear powers would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is purely to deter war because any nuclear war would immediately escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.
Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. The use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, according to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice in 1996.
Perhaps the most controversial idea in nuclear strategy is that nuclear proliferation would be desirable. This view argues that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states, as they did during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Political scientist Kenneth Waltz is the most prominent advocate of this argument.
It has been claimed that the threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of
nuclear terrorism) complicates the decision process.
Mutually assured destruction may not be effective against an enemy who expects to die in a confrontation, as they may feel they will be rewarded in a religious
afterlife as
martyrs and would not therefore be deterred by a sense of self-preservation. Further, if the initial act is from rogue groups of individuals instead of a nation, there is no fixed nation or fixed military targets to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the
September 11, 2001 attacks, that this complication is the sign of the next age of nuclear strategy, distinct from the relative stability of the Cold War
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20/9/2008
Adobe InCopy is available in the following languages: Arabic (Middle Eastern version), Brazilian Portuguese, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew (Middle Eastern version), Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, Ukrainian.
Adobe InCopy Middle Eastern versions available from WinSoft [1], Adobe Systems’ Internationalization and localization partner.
The Middle Eastern versions are specifically developed for Arabic and Hebrew languages.
InCopy Middle Eastern versions come with special settings for laying out Arabic or Hebrew text, such as:
- Possibility to use Arabic, Persian or Hindi digits
- Use kashidas for letter spacing and full justification
- Ligature option
- Set vowels /diacritics positioning
- Justify text in three possible ways to get the results you want (Standard, Arabic, Naskh)
- Option to "Insert Special Character": three Hebrew characters (Geresh, Gershayim, Magaf) and an Arabic one (Kashida)
- Apply standard, Arabic or Hebrew styles for page, paragraph and footnote numbering
In InCopy Middle Eastern versions, the notion of right-to-left behaviour applies to several objects: Story, Paragraph, Character and Table. You can easily mix Right-to-Left and Left-to-Right Words, Paragraphs and Stories in a document.
InCopy Middle Eastern versions come with a comprehensive dictionary for Arabic allowing you to spell check Arabic text with a choice of rules, like Strict Aleef Hamza, Strict Final Yaa, both or none. Depending on your system capabilities, InCopy comes with a Dictionary and Hyphenation Module for Hebrew.
InCopy Middle Eastern versions support most fonts shipped with the OS as well as a large number of third party fonts widely used by graphic designers in the Middle Eastern regions.
You can search for and change specific occurrences of Middle Eastern characters, words, groups of words, or text formatted a certain way across a selection, one or more stories, a document, or multiple open documents. You can also search for other items, including OpenType attributes such as fractions and swashes.
InCopy Middle Eastern versions bring the capability of opening directly and converting QuarkXPress files, even using Arabic XT, Arabic Phonyx or Hebrew QXPressWay fonts, retaining the layout and content. InCopy Middle Eastern versions come with more than 50 import/export filters enabling you to place many kinds of images and Roman texts: Microsoft Word 97-98-2000 Import filter and Text Import filter
The Middle Eastern versions are also available for Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe InDesign, Adobe Dreamweaver, Adobe Creative Suite (Design Standard, Design Premium, Web Premium). ... Jafar
Although its title includes "CS3", the software is not included as part of Adobe's Creative Suite package. InCopy is now sold as a retail package, and may be ordered from Adobe, third party plug-in developers, or systems integrators.
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20/9/2008
From Version 3.02 onwards, Acrobat Reader (now Adobe Reader) has included support for JavaScript. This functionality allows the document creator to include code which executes when the document is read. While JavaScript is designed without direct access to the file system to make it "safe", vulnerabilities have been reported for abuses such as distributing malicious code through Acrobat.[12] On September 13, 2006, David Kierznowski provided sample PDF files illustrating these vulnerabilities. In the most current version of Reader, JavaScript can be disabled using the preferences menu and embedded URLs that are launched are intercepted by a security warning dialog box to either allow or block the website from launching.[13]
A number of people consider the software to be too slow to load and use,[14] so they have developed workaround solutions to speed up the software.[15] The application has been improved by Adobe as the latest version of the software does load quicker; Adobe claims that Adobe Reader 7 users can "Open and save PDF files faster than ever" as version 7.0 launches "up to 50% faster than version 6.0".[16] This works by installing a QuickStart program which runs every time the computer is turned on, and which loads parts of Reader into memory. This can improve the loading speed of Reader, but also uses memory resources on the computer and causes longer system start-up times.
Many have also noted poor behavior in the Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox Acrobat plug-ins. The plug-ins do not support full asynchronous loading, thus causing browsers to appear to "lock up" until the document has been fully downloaded. In addition, the plug-ins apparently also fail to terminate when a document is closed, thereby leaving behind various CPU-intensive application threads that remain running until the Windows session is ended.[17]
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was released July 2008: [8] [9]
- Product Family includes: Acrobat Standard 9, Acrobat Pro 9, Acrobat Pro Extended 9
- PDF version 1.7 (and prior) supported.
- Extended Version includes Adobe Presenter and Adobe LiveCycle Designer ES
- Enable real-time collaboration of PDFs with synchronized document views and chat
- Improved Web Capture for capturing entire web pages or just some parts into PDF
- Integration with acrobat.com to enable storage and sharing of PDF files
- Personalize a PDF Portfolio with customizable templates for navigation and branding
- Compare and highlight the differences between two versions of a PDF document
- Insert FLV (Flash) or H.264 video for direct playback in Adobe Acrobat® and Adobe Reader
- Convert a variety of video formats to FLV for playback in PDF
- Create PDF maps by importing geospatial files that retain metadata and coordinates
- Adobe Reader 9 drops support for Adobe Reader Extensions 5 and 6 which permit Adobe Reader client software to save changes to filled-in forms in PDFs. Adobe Reader Extensions 6.1 and newer are still supported. Legacy PDFs will still be viewable, however they will open with the warning "This document enables Reader capabilities that are no longer enabled in this Reader version." [10]
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